Immune System - Blog Posts

Daily Doodles- Day 170- 04/10/24

A plant cell! I've finally gotten around to making a plant cell painting and I'm looking forward to playing around with it!

The tag for this is #agdoodles

Daily Doodles- Day 169- 01/10/24

A cell doodle! The cells of the immune system are one of my favourite topics and I'm hoping to finally start a project that features them.

The tag for this is #agdoodles

IMMUNE SYSTEM

me: immune system why do i have a fever

immune system: well the bacteria can’t survive outside 37 degrees for long so i thought i’d raise the temperature to kill them off!

me: 

immune system:

me: 

immune system:

me: we also can’t survive outside 37 degrees for long

immune system:

After picking up fresh oxygen from her stop at the lungs, a young two-day-old red blood cell takes a detour during her delivery assignment to obtain life advice from the endothelium.

Hey yall! I’m in isolation right now and I’ve been revising my food nutrition so I thought I’d share some facts with yall to stay healthy ;)

eat protein!! Protein makes up the antibodies in your immune system (the little guys that attack viruses and what not) and lacking in it will cause them to decrease since new ones can’t be made, have a protein bar every couple of days (don’t horde them tho, that’s not cool) or, if you’re veggie like me, beans on toast yall! Protein complementation, have lentil soup, tofu, nut butter on bread all work! Don’t eat too much protein now that ain’t good - search up the recommended value for your age group

Eat the right amount of carbs - seriously, without em you feel weak which means most of your body’s energy is going toward helping you stay upright as opposed to fighting off illness

V I T A M I N S - Vit A produces mucus membranes which are useful as a preventative measure against catching illness, B12 helps to make healthy red blood cells (as does B9) which are needed to provide oxygen to the body (esp useful when it’s a respiratory illness) Vit C allows iron to be absorbed (iron needed for red blood cells) so that is also useful ( B and C vitamins are water soluble so it’s hard to have an excess of them as they are *ahem* peed out)

Drink Kombucha! It’s a relatively low cal drink and comes in a variety of flavours, it also contains LOADS of healthy bacteria you need in your gut so if any of yall are recovering from a bacterial disease and had antibiotics, have some of this to get your system back on track!

I’ll update this as soon as I review more knowledge ;)

Disclaimer: I am not a medical professional at all, I’m a food nutrition student doing GCSE and this is just a list of the healthy vitamins people should be taking, info from my textbook don’t assume I’m completely correct - do your own research as well!!! always check to see what the recommended amount of macro and micronutrients are for your age group - they vary a lot!!! I also don’t endorse hoarding - that is selfish and unecessary, take only what you need and if it’s the last thing on the shelf and you can do without? Leave it!!!

Stay safe yall, message me if you need anything ;)

Nature Made Super B-Complex is a combination of 8 essential B vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, B6, folic acid, biotin, pantothenic acid and B12) which help support the production of cellular energy in the body. Order today at shoptophealth.com

Plantibodies and Plant-Derived Edible Vaccines

Throughout history, humans have used plants in the treatment of disease. This includes more traditional methods involving direct consumption with minimal preparation involved and the extraction of compounds for use in modern pharmaceuticals. One of the more recent methods of using plants in medicine involves the synthesis and application of plantibodies and plant produced antigens. These are recombinant antibodies and antigens respectively, which have been produced by a genetically modified plant (1, 2).        

Antibodies are a diverse set of proteins which serve the purpose of aiding the body in eliminating foreign pathogens. They are secreted by effector B lymphocytes which are a type of white blood cell that circulate throughout the body. An antigen is a molecule or a component of a molecule, such as a protein or carbohydrate, which can stimulate an immune response. The human body is capable of producing around 1012  different types of antibodies, each of which can bind to a specific antigen or a small group of related motifs (3). When an antibody encounters the antigen of a foreign pathogen to which it has high affinity, it binds to it which can disable it or alert the immune system for its destruction (4).

Figure 1: Each type of antibody has the ability to bind to a specific antigen or group of antigens with high affinity.

Plants do not normally produce antibodies and thus must be genetically modified to produce plantibodies as well as foreign protein antigens. Plantibodies produced in this manner function the same way as the antibodies native to the human body (1). The main ways to do this are to stably integrate foreign DNA into a host cell and place it into a plant embryo resulting in a permanent change of the nuclear genome, or to induce transient gene expression of the specified protein (5). In both cases, the genetic material introduced to the plant codes for the protein of choice. Several of the methods used to induce permanent transgene expression include agrobacterium-mediated transformation, particle bombardment using a gene gun, or the transformation of organelles such as chloroplasts. Transient transgene expression can be done using plant viruses as viral vectors or agroinfiltration (2). Once the genetic material has been inserted, the specified protein is produced via the plant endomembrane and secretory systems, after which it can be recovered through purification of the plant tissue to be used for injection (1). The production of these proteins can also be directed to specific organs of the plant such as the seeds using targeting signals (2). Stable integration techniques are generally used for more large scale production and when the gene in question has a high level of expression, while transient techniques are used to produce a greater yield in the short term (5).

Figure 2: A gene gun being used to introduce genetic material into the leaves of a plant.

Now how can plantibodies and plant produced antigens help us as humans? The primary purpose of producing plantibodies is for the treatment of disease via immunotherapy. Immunotherapy is a method of treatment in which one’s immune response to a particular disease is enhanced. Specific plantibodies can be produced in order to target a particular disease and then be applied to patients via injection as a means of treatment (6). Doing so provides a boost to the number of antibodies against the targeted disease in the patient’s body which helps to enhance their immune system response against it. An example of this is CaroRx, the first clinically tested plantibody which has the ability to bind to Streptococcus mutans. CaroRx has been shown to be effective in the treatment of tooth decay caused by this species of bacteria (1). More recently, a plantibody known as ZMapp has shown potential in the treatment of Ebola. A study by Qiu et al showed that when administered up to 5 days after the onset of the disease, 100% of rhesus macaques that were administered the drug were shown to have recovered from its effects while all of the control group animals perished as a result of the disease (7). In addition, it has been experimentally administered to some humans who later recovered from the disease, although its role in their recovery was not fully ascertained (8).

Plant produced antigens on the other hand can be used to produce oral vaccines (9). Vaccines are typically biological mixtures containing a weakened pathogen and its antigens. Injection of this results in priming of the body’s adaptive immune system against the particular pathogen so that it can more easily recognize and respond to the threat in the future (4). By producing the antigens of targeted pathogens in plants through transgenic expression, edible vaccines can be created if the plant used is safe to eat. Tobacco, potato, and tomato plants have typically been used in past attempts to create them, showing success in both animal studies and a number of human trials. The advantages of using an oral vaccine include ease of administration and lower costs since specialised personel are not required for administration (9). In addition, oral vaccines are more effective in providing immunity against pathogens at mucosal surfaces as they can be directly applied to the gastrointestinal tract (1). The primary issue with the usage of oral vaccines is that protein antigens must avoid degradation in the stomach and intestines before they can reach the targeted sites in the body. Several solutions to this dilemma include using other biological structures such as liposomes and proteasomes as a means of delivery. This helps to prevent the proteins from being degraded by digestive enzymes and the acidic environment of the stomach before they can reach their destination (1, 9).

Figure 3: An overview of one method of producing an edible vaccine using a potato plant. A gene coding for the protein of a human pathogen is used in agrobacterium-mediated transformation to produce a transgenic potato plant. The potatoes from this plant can then serve as an edible vaccine against pathogen from which the protein originated.

There are a number of advantages to using these plant based pharmaceuticals. First of all, they can be produced on a large scale at a relatively low cost through agriculture and are convenient for long-term storage due to the resiliency and size of plant seeds (5). There is also a low risk of contamination by mammalian viruses, blood borne pathogens, and oncogenes which can remove the need for expensive removal steps (1). In addition, purification steps can be skipped if the plants used are edible and ethical problems that come with animal production can be avoided (5). The disadvantages include the potential for allergic reactions to plant antigens and contamination by pesticides and herbicides. There is also the possibility of outcrossing of transgenic pollen to weeds or related crops which would lead to non-target crops also expressing the pharmaceutical.This could lead to public concern along with the potential that other species which ingest these plants may be negatively affected (9).  While plantibodies and plant produced antigens have not yet been extensively tested in clinical trials, going forward they represent a new treatment option with great promise.

References

1. Jain P, Pandey P, Jain D, Dwivedi P. Plantibody: An overview. Asian journal of Pharmacy and Life Science. 2011 Jan;1(1):87-94.

2. Stoger E, Sack M, Fischer R, Christou P. Plantibodies: applications, advantages and bottlenecks. Current Opinion in Biotechnology. 2002 Apr 1;13(2):161-166.

3. Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P. Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th Edition. New York: Garland Science; 2002.

4. Parham P. The immune system. 4th Edition. New York: Garland Science; 2014.

5. Ferrante E, Simpson D. A review of the progression of transgenic plants used to produce plantibodies for human usage. J. Young Invest. 2001;4:1-0.

6. Smith MD. Antibody production in plants. Biotechnology advances. 1996 Dec 31;14(3):267-81.

7. Qiu X, Wong G, Audet J, Bello A, Fernando L, Alimonti JB, Fausther-Bovendo H, Wei H, Aviles J, Hiatt E, Johnson A. Reversion of advanced Ebola virus disease in nonhuman primates with ZMapp. Nature. 2014 Aug 29.

8. Sneed A. Know the Jargon. Scientific american. 2014 Dec 1;311(6):24-24.

9. Daniell H, Streatfield SJ, Wycoff K. Medical molecular farming: production of antibodies, biopharmaceuticals and edible vaccines in plants. Trends in plant science. 2001 May 1;6(5):219-26.

For those poorly informed (educated) who insist that vaccines are just the same as catching the illness…. This is just one example of why that is not true.

Breakthrough for vaccine research: Mucosa forms special immunological memory

If a vaccine is to protect the intestines and other mucous membranes in the body, it also needs to be given through the mucosa, for example as a nasal spray or a liquid that is drunk. The mucosa forms a unique immunological antibody memory that does not occur if the vaccine is given by injection. This has been shown by a new study from Sahlgrenska Academy published in Nature Communications.                                

Immunological memory is the secret to human protection against various diseases and the success of vaccines. It allows our immune system to quickly recognize and neutralize threats. “The largest part of the immune system is in our mucosa. Even so, we understand less about how immunological memory protects us there than we do about protection in the rest of the body. Some have even suggested that a typical immune memory function does not exist in the mucosa,” says Mats Bemark, associate professor of immunology at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg.

After extensive work, the research team at Sahlgrenska Academy can now show that this assumption is completely wrong.

Mats Bemark et al. Limited clonal relatedness between gut IgA plasma cells and memory B cells after oral immunization, Nature Communications (2016). DOI: 10.1038/ncomms12698

Shocking New Role Found for the Immune System: Controlling Social Interactions

In a startling discovery that raises fundamental questions about human behavior, researchers at the University of Virginia School of Medicine have determined that the immune system directly affects – and even controls – creatures’ social behavior, such as their desire to interact with others.

So could immune system problems contribute to an inability to have normal social interactions? The answer appears to be yes, and that finding could have significant implications for neurological diseases such as autism-spectrum disorders and schizophrenia.

“The brain and the adaptive immune system were thought to be isolated from each other, and any immune activity in the brain was perceived as sign of a pathology. And now, not only are we showing that they are closely interacting, but some of our behavior traits might have evolved because of our immune response to pathogens,” explained Jonathan Kipnis, chair of UVA’s Department of Neuroscience. “It’s crazy, but maybe we are just multicellular battlefields for two ancient forces: pathogens and the immune system. Part of our personality may actually be dictated by the immune system.”

Evolutionary Forces at Work

It was only last year that Kipnis, the director of UVA’s Center for Brain Immunology and Glia, and his team discovered that meningeal vessels directly link the brain with the lymphatic system. That overturned decades of textbook teaching that the brain was “immune privileged,” lacking a direct connection to the immune system. The discovery opened the door for entirely new ways of thinking about how the brain and the immune system interact.

(Image caption: Normal brain activity, left, and a hyper-connected brain. Credit: Anita Impagliazzo, UVA Health System)

The follow-up finding is equally illuminating, shedding light on both the workings of the brain and on evolution itself. The relationship between people and pathogens, the researchers suggest, could have directly affected the development of our social behavior, allowing us to engage in the social interactions necessary for the survival of the species while developing ways for our immune systems to protect us from the diseases that accompany those interactions. Social behavior is, of course, in the interest of pathogens, as it allows them to spread.

The UVA researchers have shown that a specific immune molecule, interferon gamma, seems to be critical for social behavior and that a variety of creatures, such as flies, zebrafish, mice and rats, activate interferon gamma responses when they are social. Normally, this molecule is produced by the immune system in response to bacteria, viruses or parasites. Blocking the molecule in mice using genetic modification made regions of the brain hyperactive, causing the mice to become less social. Restoring the molecule restored the brain connectivity and behavior to normal. In a paper outlining their findings, the researchers note the immune molecule plays a “profound role in maintaining proper social function.”

“It’s extremely critical for an organism to be social for the survival of the species. It’s important for foraging, sexual reproduction, gathering, hunting,” said Anthony J. Filiano, Hartwell postdoctoral fellow in the Kipnis lab and lead author of the study. “So the hypothesis is that when organisms come together, you have a higher propensity to spread infection. So you need to be social, but [in doing so] you have a higher chance of spreading pathogens. The idea is that interferon gamma, in evolution, has been used as a more efficient way to both boost social behavior while boosting an anti-pathogen response.”

Understanding the Implications

The researchers note that a malfunctioning immune system may be responsible for “social deficits in numerous neurological and psychiatric disorders.” But exactly what this might mean for autism and other specific conditions requires further investigation. It is unlikely that any one molecule will be responsible for disease or the key to a cure. The researchers believe that the causes are likely to be much more complex. But the discovery that the immune system – and possibly germs, by extension – can control our interactions raises many exciting avenues for scientists to explore, both in terms of battling neurological disorders and understanding human behavior.

“Immune molecules are actually defining how the brain is functioning. So, what is the overall impact of the immune system on our brain development and function?” Kipnis said. “I think the philosophical aspects of this work are very interesting, but it also has potentially very important clinical implications.”

Findings Published

Kipnis and his team worked closely with UVA’s Department of Pharmacology and with Vladimir Litvak’s research group at the University of Massachusetts Medical School. Litvak’s team developed a computational approach to investigate the complex dialogue between immune signaling and brain function in health and disease.

“Using this approach we predicted a role for interferon gamma, an important cytokine secreted by T lymphocytes, in promoting social brain functions,” Litvak said. “Our findings contribute to a deeper understanding of social dysfunction in neurological disorders, such as autism and schizophrenia, and may open new avenues for therapeutic approaches.”

The findings have been published online by the prestigious journal Nature.

How the ‘police’ of the cell world deal with 'intruders’ and the 'injured’

The job of policing the microenvironment around our cells is carried out by macrophages. Macrophages are the 'guards’ that patrol most tissues of the body - poised to engulf infections or destroy and repair damaged tissue. 

Over the last decade it has been established that macrophages are capable of detecting changes in the microenvironment of human tissues. They can spot pathogen invasion and tissue damage, and mediate inflammatory processes in response, to destroy microbial interlopers and remove and repair damaged tissue. But how do these sentinels of the cell world deal with infection and tissue injury?

Dr Anna Piccinini, an expert in inflammatory signalling pathways in the School of Pharmacy at The University of Nottingham, has discovered that the macrophage’s 'destroy and repair service’ is capable of discriminating between the two distinct threats even deploying a single sensor. As a result, they can orchestrate specific immune responses - passing on information in the form of inflammatory molecules and degrading tissue when they encounter an infection and making and modifying molecular components of the tissue when they detect tissue damage.

Dr Piccinini’s research is published today, Tuesday 30 August 2016, in the academic journal Science Signaling. Her findings could provide future targets for the treatment of diseases with extensive tissue damage such as arthritis or cancer where inflammation plays an increasingly recognized role.

Science Signaling

Macrophage Engulfing Bacteria, Artwork by David Mack